Developing Independent Learners

Published

Introduction

  1. Crisp, B., Hallgarten, J., Joshua, V., Morris, R., Perry, T. and Wardle, L. (2023) Post-16 GCSE Resit Practice Review. London: CfEY, University of Warwick and Education Endowment Foundation. Available at: https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/education-evidence/evidence-reviews/post-16-practice-review
  2. Broad, J. (2006) ‘Interpretations of independent learning in further education’, Journal of Further and Higher Education, 30(2), pp. 119–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/030987...
  3. Department for Education (2026) Effective practice in delivering 16 to 19 level 2 English and maths in further education: Ten themes – one goal. London: Department for Education. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/effective-practice-in-delivering-16-to-19-level-2-english-and-maths
  4. Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) (2025) MetacognitionThe ways learners monitor and purposefully direct their learning. and self-regulated learning: Guidance report. 2nd edn. London: Education Endowment Foundation: Available at: https://educationendowmentfoun...
    Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) (2021) Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning: Guidance report. London: Education Endowment Foundation: Available at: https://educationendowmentfoun...
  5. Sims, S., Fletcher-Wood, H., O’Mara-Eves, A., Cottingham, S., Stansfield, C., Van Herwegen, J., and Anders, J. (2021). What are the Characteristics of Effective Professional Development? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. EEF. Available at: https://d2tic4wvo1iusb.cloudfront.net/production/documents/pages/Teacher-professional-development.pdf?v=1782990852
  6. Education Endowment Foundation. (2025). Evidence to Decision Framework for Effective Professional Development in 16-19 Settings. EEF. Available at: https://d2tic4wvo1iusb.cloudfront.net/production/documents/16-19-cpd-guide/16-19-professional-development-guide_evidence-to-decision-framework_v.1.0.0.pdf
  7. Boodt, S., Clark, L., Senior, L., and Pullen, C. (2025). 16–19 sector Continuing Professional Development Practice Review. Education Endowment Foundation. Available at: https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/education-evidence/evidence-reviews/16-19-sector-continuing-professional-development

The references listed below are studies included in the 16-19 subset under each approach.

MetacognitionThe ways learners monitor and purposefully direct their learning. and self-regulationSelf-regulated learners apply metacognitive strategies to their learning. They demonstrate self-regulation by managing their motivation, thoughts and behaviour to set goals, monitor working, reflect and review progress.

  • Abu-Alhaija, K. A. and Sarayrah, B. Y. (2006). The Effects of the Reciprocal Teaching Model on Jordanian Tenth Grade Students’ Reading Comprehension Achievement in English. Journal Of Educational and Psychological Sciences, 7(2), pp.7-24.
  • Akkurt, N. (2021). The effect of metacognitionThe ways learners monitor and purposefully direct their learning. strategy teaching on biology education. African Educational Research Journal, 9(4), pp.870-876.
  • Aleven, A. W. M. M. and Koedinger, K. R. (2002). An effective metacognitive strategy: learning by doing and explaining with a computer-based Cognitive Tutor. Cognitive Science, 26(2), pp.147-179.
  • Alhassan, R. (2017). The Effect of Employing Self-Explanation Strategy with Worked Examples on Acquiring Computer Programing Skills. Journal Of Education and Practice, 8(6), pp.186-196.
  • Alrwele, N. S. (2015). Efficacy of a Training Program in Some Self-Managed Strategies on Developing English Language Reading Comprehension and Reader's Self-Perception of 11th Grade Female Students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 177, pp.71-76.
  • Anyichie A. C. and Onyedike, C. C. (2012). Effects of Self-Instructional Learning Strategy on Secondary Schools Students' Academic Achievement in Solving Mathematical Word Problems in Nigeria. African Research Review, 6(4), pp.302-323.
  • Bimmel, P. E., van den Bergh, H. and Oostdam, R. J. (2001). Effects of strategy training on reading comprehension in first and foreign language. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 16(4), pp.509-529.
  • Chang, C. Y. (2001). Comparing the Impacts of a Problem-Based Computer-Assisted Instruction and the Direct-Interactive Teaching Method on Student Science Achievement. Journal Of Science Education and Technology, 10(2), pp.155-163.
  • Hauptman, H. and Cohen, A. (2011). The synergetic effect of learning styles on the interaction between virtual environments and the enhancement of spatial thinking. Computers & Education, 57(3), pp.2106-2117.
  • Ibe, H. N. (2009). Metacognitive Strategies on Classroom Participation and Student Achievement in Senior Secondary School Science Classrooms. Science Education International, 20(1/2), pp.25-31.
  • Jegede, S. A. and Fatoke, A. O. (2014). The Effects of Problem-Solving Instructional Strategy, Three Modes of Instruction and Gender on Learning Outcomes in Chemistry. Journal Of Education And Practice, 5(23), pp.179-184.
  • Kadioglu-Akbulut, C. and Uzuntiryaki-Kondakci, E. (2021). Implementation of self-regulatory instruction to promote students’ achievement and learning strategies in the high school chemistry classroom. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 22(1), pp.12-29.
  • Kalaimathi, D. H. and Julius, R. A. (2012). Effect of Metamemory Strategies on Learning Bio-Chemical Cycle Among Higher Secondary School Students. Indian Journal of Applied Research, 2(1), pp.3-5.
  • Kemp, S. G. and Sadoski M. (1991). The effects of instruction in forming generalizations on high school students’ critical thinking in world history. Reading Research and Instruction, 31(1), pp.33-42.
  • Leopold, C. and Leutner, D. (2015). Improving students' science text comprehension through metacognitive self-regulationSelf-regulated learners apply metacognitive strategies to their learning. They demonstrate self-regulation by managing their motivation, thoughts and behaviour to set goals, monitor working, reflect and review progress. when applying learning strategies. MetacognitionThe ways learners monitor and purposefully direct their learning. And Learning, 10(3), pp.313-346.
  • Lizarraga María Luisa Sanz de Acedo and Baquedano María Teresa Sanz de Acedo; Oliver María Soria;. (2010). Stimulation of thinking skills in high school students. Educational Studies, 36(3), pp.329-340.
  • Manlove, S., Lazonder, A. W. and de Jong, T. (2007). Software scaffolds to promote regulation during scientific inquiry learning. MetacognitionThe ways learners monitor and purposefully direct their learning. and Learning, 2(2-3), pp.141-155.
  • McCarthy, K. S. and Likens, A. D., Johnson, A. M., Guerrero, T. A. and McNamara, D. S. (2018). Metacognitive Overload!: Positive and Negative Effects of Metacognitive Prompts in an Intelligent Tutoring System. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 28(3), pp.420-438.
  • McCarthy-Tucker, S. N. (1998). Teaching logic to adolescents to improve thinking skills. Korean Journal of Thinking and Problem Solving, 8(1), pp.45-66.
  • Mevarech, Z. R. and Amrany C. (2008). Immediate and delayed effects of meta-cognitive instruction on regulation of cognition and mathematics achievement. MetacognitionThe ways learners monitor and purposefully direct their learning. and Learning, 3(2), pp.147-157.
  • Michalsky, T. (2013). Integrating Skills and Wills Instruction in Self-Regulated Science Text Reading for Secondary Students. International Journal Of Science Education, 35(11), pp.1846-1873.
  • Michalsky, T. (2021). When to Scaffold Motivational Self-RegulationSelf-regulated learners apply metacognitive strategies to their learning. They demonstrate self-regulation by managing their motivation, thoughts and behaviour to set goals, monitor working, reflect and review progress. Strategies for High School Students' Science Text Comprehension. Frontiers In Psychology, 12, pp.1-16.
  • Moghadam, A. Z. and Fard, M. M. M. M. K. (2011). Surveying the Effect of Metacognitive Education on the Mathematics Achievement of 1st Grade High Junior School Female Students in Educational District 5, Tehran City, 2009-10 Educational Year. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 11, pp.1531-1540.
  • Muoneke, A. F. (2001). The effects of a Question and Action strategy on the mathematical word problem-solving skills of students with learning problems in mathematics.
  • Nbinam, J. B. and Viko, B. (2010). Effect of Instruction in Metacognitive Self-assessment Strategy on Chemistry Self-efficacy and Achievement of Senior Secondary School Students in Rivers State, Nigeria. Academic Leadership: The Online Journal, 8(4), pp.151-159.
  • Oghenevwede, O. E. (2019). Enhancing Biology Students' Academic Achievement and Attitude Through Self-Regulated Learning Strategy in Senior Secondary Schools in Delta Central Senatorial District. Journal Of Educational And Social Research, 9(4), pp.149-149.
  • Oladunni, M O. (1998). An experimental study on the effectiveness of metacognitive and heuristic problem solving techniques on computational performance of students in mathematics. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 29(6), pp.867-874.
  • Sain, A. and Kusum, N. (2021). Mind mapping: a metacognitive approach to elevate achievement in mathematics of secondary school students. International Journal Of Research Granthaalayah, 9(7), pp.329–333.
  • Sama, K. M. and Ibrahim, M. (2018). Instructions on Metacognitive Learning Strategy and the Effects on Narrative Essay Writing Ability of Senior Secondary School Students in Sokoto State, Nigeria. Journal Of Literature and Languages and Linguistics, 51, pp.48-56.
  • Tawarik, O., Ikhsanudin, I., Wajdi, M. and Latip-Yusoph, S. (2021). Effect of CALLA metacognitive strategy instruction on reading comprehension and reading awareness. Journal Of Applied Studies in Language, 5(2), pp.309-319.
  • Unrau, N. J. (1991). The Effects of Explicit Instruction on Critical Reading and Argumentative Writing: The TASK of Reading and Writing. In: Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Chicago: ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED336737, pp.61. Available at: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED3367....
  • Wagner, D. and Perels, F. (2012). Evaluation of an Intervention Program to Foster Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement in Latin Instruction. Isrn Education, 2012, pp.1-12.
  • Westbrook, S. L. and Rogers, L. N. (1991). An Analysis of the Relationship between Student-Invented Hypotheses and the Development of Reflective Thinking Strategies. In: Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. Lake Geneva, WI: ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED340605, pp. Available at: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED3406....
  • Zion, M., Michalsky, T. and Mevarech, Z. R. (2005). The effects of metacognitive instruction embedded within an asynchronous learning network on scientific inquiry skills. International Journal of Science Education, 27(8), pp.957-983.
  • Zohar, A. and Tamir, P. (1993). Incorporating Critical Thinking into a Regular High School Biology Curriculum. School Science and Mathematics, 93(3), pp.136-140.

Collaborative learning approaches

  • Acar, B. and Tarhan, L. (2007). Effect of cooperative learning strategies on students' understanding of concepts in electrochemistry. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 5(2), pp.349-373.
  • Balfakih, N. M. A. (2003). The effectiveness of student team-achievement division (STAD) for teaching high school chemistry in the United Arab Emirates. International Journal of Science Education, 25(5), pp.605-624.
  • Barbato, R. A. and Tetenbaum, T. (2000). Policy implications of cooperative learning on the achievement and attitudes of secondary school mathematics students. Fordham University.
  • Bilgin, İ. and Geban, Ö. (2006). The effect of cooperative learning approach based on conceptual change condition on students' understanding of chemical equilibrium concepts. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 15(1), pp.31-46.
  • Faro, S. and Swan, K. (2006). An investigation into the efficacy of the Studio Model at the high school level. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 35(1), pp.45-59.
  • Gayford, C. (1995). Science Education and Sustainability: A case‐study in discussion‐based learning. Research in Science & Technological Education, 13(2), pp.135-145.
  • Ghaith, G. (2003). Effects of the learning together model of cooperative learning on English as a foreign language reading achievement, academic self-esteem, and feelings of school alienation. Bilingual Research Journal, 27(3), pp.451-474.
  • Hänze, M. and Berger, R. (2007). Cooperative learning, motivational effects, and student characteristics: An experimental study comparing cooperative learning and direct instruction in 12th grade physics classes. Learning and Instruction, 17(1), pp.29-41.
  • Harskamp, E. and Ding, N. (2006). Structured collaboration versus individual learning in solving physics problems. International Journal of Science Education, 28(14), pp.1669-1688.
  • Ho, F. F. and Boo, H. K. (2007). Cooperative learning: Exploring its effectiveness in the physics classroom. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 8(2), pp.1-7.
  • Holliday, D. C. (1995). The effects of the cooperative learning strategy Jigsaw II on academic achievement and cross-race relationships in a secondary social studies classroom. The University of Southern Mississippi.
  • Kosters, A. E. (1990). The effects of cooperative learning in the traditional classroom on student achievement and attitude. University of South Dakota.
  • Lazarowitz, R., Baird, J. H., Bowlden, V., and Hertz‐Lazarowitz, R. (1996). Teaching biology in a group mastery learning mode: high school students’ academic achievement and affective outcomes. International Journal of Science Education, 18(4), pp.447-462.
  • Lumpe, A. T. and Staver, J. R. (1995). Peer collaboration and concept development: Learning about photosynthesis. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32(1), pp.71-98.
  • Nichols, J. D. (1996). The effects of cooperative learning on student achievement and motivation in a high school geometry class. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21(4), pp.467-476.
  • Noh, T., Jeon, K., and Huffman, D. (2005). The effects of thinking aloud pair problem solving on high school students' chemistry problem-solving performance and verbal interactions. Journal of Chemical Education, 82(10), pp.1558-1558.
  • Ross, M. C., Seaborn, A. W. and Wilson, E. K. (2002). Is cooperative learning a valuable instructional method for teaching social studies to urban African American students?. Available at: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED4804....
  • Shachar. H. and Fischer, S. (2004). Cooperative learning and the achievement of motivation and perceptions of students in 11th grade chemistry classes. Learning and Instruction, 14(1), pp.69-87.
  • Tarhan, L. and Acar, B. (2007). Problem‐based learning in an eleventh grade chemistry class: ‘factors affecting cell potential’. Research in Science & Technological Education, 25(3), pp.351-369.
  • Unrau, N. J. (1991). The effects of explicit instruction on critical reading and argumentative writing: The TASK of reading and writing. In: Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Chicago: ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED336737, Available at: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED3367....
  • Werner, L. (1997). Effects of learning structure and summarization during computer-based instruction. Arizona State University.
  • Whicker, K. M., Bol, L. and Nunnery, J. A. (1997). Cooperative learning in the secondary mathematics classroom. The Journal of Educational Research, 91(1), pp.42-48.
  • Wolf, B. A. (1994). Effects of cooperative learning and learner control in computer-based instruction. Arizona State University.

Peer tutoring

  • Bemboom, C. M. and McMaster, K. L. (2013). A comparison of lower‐ and higher‐resourced tier 2 reading interventions for high school sophomores. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 28(4), pp.184-195.
  • Calhoon, M.B. and Fuchs, L.S. (2003). The effects of peer-assisted learning strategies and curriculum-based measurement on the mathematics performance of secondary students with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 24(4), pp. 235–245.
  • Ding, N. and Harskamp, E.G. (2011). Collaboration and peer tutoring in chemistry laboratory education. International Journal of Science Education, 33(6), pp. 839–863.
  • Early, J.W. (1998). The impact of peer tutoring on self-esteem and Texas Assessment of Academic Skills mathematics performance of tenth-grade students. Texas A&M University–Commerce.
  • Gregg, G.P. (1994). The use of storybook reading in a cross-age tutoring program to enhance the reading skills of low-ability high school students. The Florida State University.
  • Nnamani, A.P. and Akabogu, J.U. (2020). Enhancing interest among senior secondary students in expository essay writing in South East Nigeria: The reciprocal peer tutoring approach. Global Journal of Health Science, 12(5), pp. 38–45.
  • Ohadugha, R.O., Chukwuemeka, E.J. and Babatunde, A.E. (2020). Impact of peer-mediated learning on achievement and motivation in computer science among senior secondary school students in Minna Metropolis, Niger State. Contemporary Educational Technology, 12(1), p. e263.
  • Oloyede, M.A., Bamidele, E.F. and Oladipupo, P.O. (2019). Relative effectiveness of peer tutoring and think-pair-share strategies in improving senior secondary school students’ academic performance in chemistry in Osogbo. Journal of Global Research in Education and Social Science, 13(6), pp. 228–238.
  • Olulowo, T.G., Ige, O.A. and Ugwoke, E.O. (2020). Using peer tutoring to improve students’ academic achievement in financial accounting concepts. Education Research International, 2020, pp. 1–10.
  • Sumita, E. (2021). A comparative study of using classwide peer tutoring technique and student team achievement division technique in teaching reading comprehension at State Senior High School 1 Tualang. Journal of Education and Teaching, 2(1), pp. 34–39.
  • Thomas, A.S., Bonner, S.M., Everson, H.T. and Somers, J.A. (2015). Leveraging the power of peer-led learning: Investigating effects on STEM performance in urban high schools. Educational Research and Evaluation, 21(7–8), pp. 537–557.
  • Ullah, I., Tabassum, R. and Kaleem, M. (2018). Effects of peer tutoring on the academic achievement of students in the subject of biology at secondary level. Education Sciences, 8(3), p. 112.
  • Walker, E., Rummel, N. and Koedinger, K.R. (2009). Integrating collaboration and intelligent tutoring data in the evaluation of a reciprocal peer tutoring environment. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 4(3), pp. 221-251.
  • Wang, Y., Lin, L. and Chen, O. (2021). The benefits of teaching on comprehension, motivation, and perceived difficulty: Empirical evidence of teaching expectancy and the interactivity of teaching. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(4), pp. 1275-1290.

Feedback

  • Biemans, H.J.A. and Simons, P.R.-J. (1992). Learning to use a word processor with concurrent computer-assisted instruction. Learning and Instruction, 2(4), pp. 321–338.
  • Chen, N.-S., Teng, D.C.-E., Lee, C.-H. and Kinshuk (2011). Augmenting paper-based reading activity with direct access to digital materials and scaffolded questioning. Computers & Education, 57(2), pp. 1705–1715.
  • Clariana, R.B. (1990). An experimental study comparing three forms of feedback across two conditions of acquisition.
  • Clariana, R.B. and Koul, R. (2006). The effects of different forms of feedback on fuzzy and verbatim memory of science principles. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(2), pp. 259–270.
  • Eyengho, T. and Fawole, O. (2013). Effectiveness of indirect and direct metalinguistic error correction techniques on the essays of senior secondary school students in South Western Nigeria. Educational Research and Reviews, 8(17), pp. 1613–1620.
  • Khine, M.S. (1996). The interaction of cognitive styles with varying levels of feedback in multimedia presentation. International Journal of Instructional Media, 23(3), pp. 229–237.
  • Lai, W. Y. K. (1993). The influence of written teacher comments and differing amounts of homework upon student achievement in basic mathematics.
  • Peverly, S.T. and Wood, R. (2001). The effects of adjunct questions and feedback on improving the reading comprehension skills of learning-disabled adolescents. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26(1), pp. 25–43.