Reading comprehension strategies support pupils to comprehend the meaning of what they are reading. The strategies focus mainly on language comprehension, i.e. how to access the meaning of the ideas expressed in the text. There are other aspects of reading, such as decoding (see Phonics) and fluency, which are not the main focus of this evidence base.
The teaching of reading comprehension strategies involves consciously modelling and applying the tools used by expert readers until they become automatic for pupils.
Examples of reading comprehension strategies include:
- Setting a purpose for reading
- Activating schema
- Previewing the text
- Predicting
- Visualising (creating mental pictures)
- Asking a question
- Making connections by activating prior knowledge
- Clarifying
- Using graphic or semantic organisers
- Self-questioning
- Making inferences
- Paraphrasing
- Summarising
- Drawing conclusions
- Determining main ideas or recurring themes
Teachers often use metacognitive talk to model strategies and use questioning to encourage pupils to apply them. After the initial teaching, pupils can practise the strategies in small groups, pairs or individually (see also Collaborative learning). Through this, pupils learn to plan, monitor and evaluate their own comprehension and/or their own use of the comprehension strategies (see also self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances.?x‑craft-preview=ce7f256a31b6a691f2379043cf6209e19bfd559f4a263b5e818aa351273238aenqyublohea” target=“_blank” rel=“noreferrer noopener”>Metacognition and self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances.). This process supports a gradual release of responsibility to the pupils, moving from teaching to guided practice to independent practice.
Strategies can be taught to the whole class as part of usual lessons and delivered by the class teacher. They can also be taught through targeted interventions delivered in small groups or one to one.
1. Reading comprehension strategies are high impact on average (+7 months). Alongside phonics this is a crucial part of early reading instruction.
2. It is important to consider how pupils will move to independence. Many successful approaches develop pupils’ metacognition so they can independently plan, monitor and evaluate their own understanding and apply relevant strategies.
3. Practitioners should consider careful text choice at the appropriate level of challenge, developing pupils’ desire to engage with the text and giving them opportunities to practise.
4. A wide range of reading comprehension strategies and approaches can be successful but for many pupils they need to be taught explicitly.
5. While reading comprehension strategies might initially be taught in isolation, it is crucial to support pupils to apply the taught strategies during a range of reading tasks, in a range of contexts, and across subjects.
6. Even with secure reading comprehension strategies, pupils can struggle to understand what they read for a range of reasons. Accurate and timely diagnosis of reading difficulties is therefore important in identifying possible solutions and appropriate strategies, particularly for older struggling readers. Pupils can struggle with decoding words, understanding the structure of the language used, or understanding particular vocabulary, which may be subject-specific.
The average impact of reading comprehension strategies is an additional seven months’ progress over the course of a year. Successful approaches are carefully tailored to pupils’ reading capabilities. Texts should provide an effective, but not overwhelming, challenge.
Reading comprehension strategies can be taught effectively in a range of contexts, for example, as part of pupils’ usual literacy activities, in lessons across the curriculum, or in specialised reading sessions, either to the whole class or a targeted group.
There are some indications that involving digital technology can be helpful for improving reading comprehension. These approaches tend to focus on the application and practice of specific strategies, and they often provide prompts or feedback to the pupil as they go.
The teaching of reading comprehension strategies is effective across both primary and secondary schools.
Although the evidence mainly focuses on literacy, comprehension strategies have been successfully taught in a number of curriculum subjects where being able to read and understand text is important. Strategies can be integrated into literacy, humanities and science lessons, in addition to other subjects.
There are some indications that approaches involving digital technology can be successful in improving reading comprehension, particularly when they focus on the application and practice of specific strategies and give pupils feedback.
Reading comprehension strategies can be a part of usual classroom teaching. When delivered to the whole class, more sustained and frequent teaching seems to be better.
For targeted interventions delivered in a time-limited period, shorter interventions of up to 9 weeks tend to be most effective. However, there are some examples of interventions being successfully delivered over a longer period.
All pupils come to school with different background knowledge and this is a key consideration for reading comprehension. When selecting a text, it is important to consider what pupils already know about the topic and plan accordingly. In the majority of studies, teachers think about how to build on existing knowledge. They can intentionally align the text with the curriculum content or pupils’ interests, re-introduce relevant prior knowledge so that pupils can make links, and introduce new knowledge or vocabulary to support comprehension of new topics.
Some disadvantaged pupils may have low prior attainment in reading. If a pupil is struggling to read, there could be a range of reasons, and a combination of approaches may be necessary. Careful diagnosis of the pupil’s need should guide the way forward. Solutions may include phonics, reading comprehension and oral language approaches. Supporting struggling readers is likely to require a coordinated effort across the curriculum.
Text type: Selecting an appropriate text is important when teaching reading comprehension strategies. In this evidence base, strategies are most often applied to expository textsExpository texts focus on information and explanation., but many studies also look at narrative texts or other kinds. Strategies may need to vary depending on the content of the text. Using graphic organisers and reciprocal reading are both more common with expository textsExpository texts focus on information and explanation.. Self-questioning is a strategy seen across text types.
Teaching approach: It is very common for teachers to use explicit instruction as well as modelling when teaching reading comprehension strategies. In many cases, individual strategies are taught or practised separately and then sometimes integrated at a later point. Teacher modelling is a common way of integrating strategies by showing how an expert reader applies them to a text. A more holistic approach is taken by some practitioners, in which multiple strategies or skills are introduced and developed alongside each other.
Pupil activity: Listening and discussion are often involved in the learning process. It is important to consider the transition from teacher-led comprehension strategies to pupils’ independent use of those strategies. Often, pupil practice is the bridge. In many studies, pupils work collaboratively, for example through discussions, to consolidate learning (see also Oral Language Interventions). Individual pupil practice is also a key part of learning, for example through written exercises. However, reading comprehension is not the ability to answer written questions and not all studies in the evidence base involve pupils writing.
The average cost of reading comprehension strategies is estimated as very low, although this will depend on what resources are available and what is already in place. The cost to schools comes from training and professional development, books and learning resources, the majority of which are initial start-up costs paid during the first year of delivery. Whilst the median cost estimate for reading comprehension programmes is very low, the range of prices between available programmes and the option to purchase additional ongoing training and support for teaching staff means that costs can range from very low to low.
Whether implemented as an aspect of classroom practice or as additional teaching, effective teaching of reading comprehension strategies can require a moderate amount of staff time compared with other approaches. This is because it requires a supported change or development to teaching practice, which should then be sustained. An implementation plan that includes sustaining good practice should be considered alongside staff time and cost. For more information see A School’s Guide to Implementation.
These EEF resources may support implementation:
The security of the evidence around reading comprehension strategies is rated as moderate. 184 studies were identified that met the inclusion criteria for the Toolkit. The topic lost a padlock because a large percentage of the studies were not independently evaluated. Evaluations conducted by organisations connected with the approach – for example, commercial providers, typically have larger impacts, which may influence the overall impact of the strand. Another padlock was lost because there is a large amount of unexplained variation between the results included in the topic. All reviews contain some variation in results, which is why it is important to look behind the average. Unexplained variation (or heterogeneity) reduces our certainty in the results in ways that we have been unable to test by looking at how context, methodology or approach is influencing impact.
As with any evidence review, the Toolkit summarises the average impact of approaches when researched in academic studies. It is important to consider your context and apply your professional judgement when implementing an approach in your setting.
Have any questions?
The Teaching and Learning Toolkit is a living resource that is updated as new evidence is published. As we continue to update the Toolkit we are interested in your questions about this topic area for future content.
The evidence synthesis team will review submitted questions and, where possible, provide answers in future updates.
Guidance Reports
Improving Literacy in Key Stage 1
Guidance Reports