Overall, studies of communication and language approaches consistently show positive benefits for young children’s learning, including their spoken language skills, their expressive vocabulary and their early reading skills. On average, children who are involved in communication and language approaches make seven months’ additional progress over the course of a year. All children appear to benefit from such approaches, but some studies show slightly larger effects for children from disadvantaged backgrounds.

Some types of communication and language approaches appear, on average, to be more effective than others. There is consistent evidence that reading to young children, and encouraging them to answer questions and talk about the story with a trained adult, is an effective approach. A number of studies show the benefits of programmes where trained teaching assistants have supported both oral language and early reading skills.

A number of studies comment on the importance of training and professional development, and supporting early years professionals with the implementation of different approaches. There are indications that settings should use a range of different approaches to developing communication and language skills, as it is unlikely that one approach alone is enough to secure young children’s development and progress.

Very few studies measure the impact of communication and language approaches on children from disadvantaged backgrounds, which means it is not possible to accurately measure the impact. However, the small number of studies that have taken place in settings with a higher proportion of children experiencing socio-economic disadvantage tended to have above average effects suggesting that this is likely to be a beneficial approach for this group.

There is evidence of language gaps for disadvantaged pupils at the beginning of school, so targeted communication support may be a promising approach to narrow these inequalities.

Overall, the costs are estimated as very low. There are few, if any, direct financial costs associated with the approach. Additional resources such as books for discussion may be required. While the median cost estimate is very low, the option to provide additional resources such as books for discussion, and professional development for staff means that costs can range from very low to moderate.

In a recent UK evaluation, the cost of additional resources was estimated at between £10 and £20 per pupil. Professional development or training is also likely to enhance the benefits on learning. One intensive communications programme evaluated by the EEF costed around £80 per child for a 30-week intervention, which included professional development.

The average impact of an earlier starting age is about an additional three months’ progress over the course of a year.

Evidence about the longer-term impact of an earlier starting age varies. In some studies, positive effects are detectable into primary school and even into secondary school. However, in several US studies benefits do not usually appear to be sustained for more than a year or two. It appears likely that the quality of provision is the key determinant of sustained improvement, but more evidence is needed in this area to identify which practices are most helpful for different ages.

The existing evidence base relates primarily to attendance at a group-based early years setting for an additional year, rather than attending a home-based setting such as a childminder.

There are some indications that the impact of additional early years provision can be particularly positive for children from socio-economically disadvantaged families. To increase the likelihood of an earlier starting age benefitting disadvantaged children, settings should consider how to secure engagement and attendance among those from disadvantaged backgrounds.

Ensuring that cost does not present a barrier to low socio-economic status families accessing early childhood education may be an important factor in closing the attainment gap. In England, three- and four-year-olds are entitled to 15 hours per week free childcare, or 30 hours for working families that meet certain criteria.

Overall, the costs are estimated as very high but there is large variation in costs. In England all three and four year olds can get 570 free hours of early education or childcare a year. The average cost for preschool in England is £102 per week. There is, however, regional variation – for example, costs are higher in London.

Alongside free hours, parents may also be eligible for Universal Credit and Tax-Free Childcare.

Early literacy approaches have consistently been found to have a positive effect on early learning outcomes. The early literacy approaches included in this toolkit led to an average impact of four additional months’ progress, and some studies found that learning was improved by as much as six months.

However, early literacy approaches should not be seen as a panacea. Though long-term positive effects have been detected in some studies, for a majority of strategies these benefits appear to fade over time. This suggests that a single intervention is unlikely to be enough to close the attainment gap and that interventions need to be appropriate to a child’s age and carefully consider their progression.

There is evidence that combining multiple early literacy approaches may be more effective than any single approach. This is because improvements in one specific area, such as knowledge of letter names and sounds, does not always lead to improvements in other areas too. It may therefore be beneficial to put a range of approaches in place to target different skills. Combining this with regular assessments of children’s literacy skills can help you to select the right approaches for the age and developmental stage of the children, and target any areas of weakness.

For a longer evidence summary of phonics, you can read the entry in the Teaching and Learning Toolkit. The studies summarised include research that focuses on phonics for four and five year olds.

Studies indicate that involving parents in implementing early literacy strategies can be beneficial. One example is shared reading approaches. Some of these approaches cross over with those summarised in the Toolkit entry on parental engagement.

All children appear to benefit from early literacy approaches, but there is some evidence that certain strategies , particularly those involving targeted small group interaction, may have particularly positive effects on children from disadvantaged backgrounds.

The median cost of early literacy interventions are estimated as very low. Costs include resources such as books and other print materials. Costs increase as professional development costs are added or for more intensive small group support. 

On average, early numeracy approaches have a positive impact on learning equivalent to seven additional months’ progress for early mathematics outcomes. There is some variation between approaches, which suggests that the choice of approach and the way in which strategies are introduced are important. Approaches tend to produce larger effects when they:

• are designed to address the breadth of the mathematics curriculum,
• commit a regular amount of time to developing mathematics (between two and three hours per week),
• are designed specifically for the early years setting involved, and
• include some specific individual interaction.

The most effective early numeracy approaches balance guided interaction with both direct teaching and child-led activities, depending on the age and capabilities of the child. A number of studies also indicate that it is important for early years professionals to understand young children’s mathematical development (such as the typical stages in learning to count) and to understand how to assess this development. This understanding will support the provision of more effective activities.

While early numeracy approaches benefit all pupils, their impact on children from disadvantaged background tends to be higher. There is some evidence that targeted early numeracy approaches can help children from disadvantaged backgrounds catch up with their peers by the beginning of formal schooling, though not all approaches appear to be equally effective.

Overall, the median costs are estimated as very low. Most early numeracy approaches do not cost additional money to deliver. Costs can increase where additional professional development is purchased or through buying equipment to support mathematical experiences such as for counting, measuring, and using money.

The evidence suggests that, on average, increasing the amount of early years education a child receives can produce moderate improvements of four additional months’ progress in academic performance. However, the benefits vary widely across studies.

There are also some indications that any learning gains related to extra hours may not be sustained into primary school unless the quality of provision in the extended time is of a high quality. One of the strongest predictors of attainment in schools at 11 is the presence of an effective reception teacher. Without the continuation of high quality provision, short-term improvements related to extra hours appear to ​“wash out” in primary school.

Most of the studies focus on children who are aged four or five, which makes it difficult to draw secure conclusions about the impact of extra hours on three-year-olds.

Although there were not enough studies to explore the relationship between extra hours and disadvantage systematically, studies in settings with a higher proportion of children experiencing socio-economic disadvantage tended to have above average effects, suggesting that this is likely to be a beneficial approach for this group.

Ensuring that cost does not present a barrier to low socio-economic status families accessing additional hours of early childhood education may be an important factor in closing the attainment gap. In England, all three- and four-year-olds are entitled to 15 hours per week free childcare, and this entitlement extends to some two-year-olds whose families receive extra support. For working parents meeting certain criteria, 30 hours per week free childcare is available when their child turns 9 months old.

Overall, the costs are estimated as very high. A full time pre-school place costs about £4,000 more than a half-time place for 40 weeks, or approximately an additional £100 per week. Behind these average costs there is substantial variation based on region, type of setting and how the cost is split between parents and state-funded childcare.

Parental engagement in early years education is consistently associated with children’s subsequent academic success. On average, parental engagement programmes evaluated to date have led to a positive impact of five additional months’ progress over the course of a year. However, there is some variation in effectiveness between approaches, suggesting that careful thought is needed when developing and introducing parental engagement approaches, and that ongoing monitoring and evaluation is essential.

Approaches that aim to increase general parental engagement, for example by encouraging parents to read with their children can have a moderate positive impact for all children. Studies highlight the benefits of reading to children before they are able to read, and then of reading with children as soon as they are able to read. A number of studies have identified the positive impact of encouraging parents to talk with their children.

Approaches that focus on developing parents’ own skills, for example by providing structured training, can have a moderate positive impact on learning. In general, more intensive approaches, which target particular families or outcomes, are associated with higher learning gains.

Although there were not enough studies to explore the relationship between parental engagement and disadvantage systematically, studies suggest that the impact on disadvantaged families tends to be lower.

It is crucial that settings consider how parental engagement strategies will engage with all parents, as these interventions have the risk of increasing attainment gaps if the parents that access parental engagement opportunities are primarily from more affluent backgrounds.

Overall, the median costs of implementing parental engagement are estimated as low. Most costs arise from staff training and development, all of which are more likely to be start-up costs.

Whilst the median cost estimate for parental engagement is low, the costs of intensive support can be much higher (for example, if salary costs for a specialist community or home liaison worker is included).

These cost estimates assume that settings are already paying for technology for communication with parents, and facilities to host any in person meetings. These are all pre-requisite costs of implementing parental engagement strategies, without which the cost is likely to be higher.

On average, children who take part in physical development interventions make around five additional months progress in cognitive outcomes. While the overall picture is positive and the findings fairly consistent across studies, the security of evidence is very weak. The weakness of the evidence base mean it is not possible to provide a clear account of the reasons why some physical development approaches are effective. Few individual interventions have been evaluated to a high standard.

There is some evidence that programmes that combine physical activity with strategies to promote self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. can improve executive functionCognitive skills that enable children to adapt their thinking and actions to achieve a goal. This might be a self-chosen goal (e.g. To build a tower) or set by an adult (e.g. to respond to a question about a story). and have a positive impact on learning and that integrating physical development activities in other areas of the early years curriculum can be beneficial.

The evidence for physical development approaches is too weak and unable to measure any differential impact for pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds.

It is, however, important to consider how physical development opportunities can be made available to all children. Particularly consideration should be given to avoiding costs that place barriers on additional physical development opportunities to poorer families.

The evidence base for play-based learning is not strong or consistent, but does indicate a clear relationship between play and early learning outcomes. On average, the studies of play that measure impact found that play-based learning approaches improve learning outcomes by approximately four additional months. However, there is substantial variation in effects, suggesting that additional, high-quality research is needed in this area.

Positive outcomes have been identified for a range of early learning outcomes including language, early literacy, early numeracy and a range of other cognitive outcomes. Play-based approaches can have substantial benefits for children who are identified as having social, emotional, or educational difficulties.

Most of the identified studies focus on guided play rather than free play or role-play approaches. While studies of free play do exist, they did not frequently look at cognitive outcomes, and often used weaker research designs. The two studies that met the inclusion criteria for the Toolkit had conflicting results, with one positive and one negative effect.

Although there were not enough studies to explore the relationship between play-based learning and disadvantage, there are examples of studies that have been successful in improving educational outcomes in settings with a high proportion of children experiencing socio-economic disadvantage.

Overall, the median costs of implementing play-based learning are estimated as very low. Most early years settings are designed to incorporate indoor and outdoor play facilities, so there are limited additional costs associated with play-based learning.

Costs can be higher when these facilities are not present or where specific additional resources and materials may be needed, such as those required for role play or play to support early literacy. Training for staff to develop their understanding of how to develop children’s learning from play activities is likely to be beneficial. This includes training to support decisions about how to intervene, and when to observe during child initiated play.

The development of self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. and executive functionCognitive skills that enable children to adapt their thinking and actions to achieve a goal. This might be a self-chosen goal (e.g. To build a tower) or set by an adult (e.g. to respond to a question about a story). is consistently linked with successful learning, including pre-reading skills, early mathematics and problem solving. Strategies that seek to improve learning by increasing self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. have an average impact of three additional months’ progress. However, this is based on very limited evidence in the early years, with a small number of studies having assessed the educational impact (e.g. on early literacy or numeracy) of approaches that sought to improve self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances..

A number of studies suggest that improving the self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. skills of children in the early years is likely to have a lasting positive impact on later learning at school, and also have a positive impact on wider outcomes such as behaviour and persistence.

The studies that have been conducted in early years settings, and existing evidence from older age groups, suggests that promising approaches are likely to balance explicit instruction with providing scaffolded opportunities for children to practice new skills. For example, early years practitioners might talk to children about how to follow a ​“Plan, Do, Review” approach for a simple building activity.

However, the small number of studies mean that more evaluation is needed to identify specific programmes or curricula that have a positive impact on academic outcomes through improving self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. for young children.

While this evidence review focuses on self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. strategies that aim to improve cognitive outcomes, there is a wider evidence base on self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. strategies that measure self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. as an outcome. These studies typically have a higher impact due to the closeness of the intervention to the outcome.

There are some indications that children from disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to begin early years education with weaker self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. skills than their more affluent peers. As a result, embedding self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. strategies into early years teaching is likely to be particularly beneficial for children from disadvantaged backgrounds.

Overall, the median costs of implementing self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. strategies are estimated as very low. The costs mostly arise from professional development training for staff, which is most commonly a start-up cost for embedding the approach across a setting. Whilst the median cost estimate for self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. strategies is very low, the range in cost of professional development training, and the option to purchase additional materials and provide ongoing training and support, means that costs can range from very low to low.

These cost estimates assume that settings are already paying for staff salaries, materials and equipment for teaching, and facilities. These are all pre-requisite costs of implementing self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. strategies, without which the cost is likely to be higher.

Implementing self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. strategies will also require a small amount of staff time, compared with other approaches, as staff need to develop their own understanding of self-regulatory processes to model effective use of these strategies and skills to pupils.

Though, on average, all children benefit, there is also some evidence that SEL approaches can benefit disadvantaged children more than their peers.

Evidence suggests that children from disadvantaged backgrounds have, on average, weaker SEL skills at all ages than their more affluent peers. These skills are likely to influence a range of outcomes for pupils: lower SEL skills are linked with poorer mental health and lower academic attainment.

SEL interventions in education are shown to improve SEL skills and are therefore likely to support disadvantaged pupils to understand and engage in healthy relationships with peers and emotional self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances., both of which may subsequently increase academic attainment.

Overall, the median costs of implementing SEL approaches in the Early Years are estimated as very low. The costs associated with SEL interventions arise from professional training and development for staff, the majority of which are start-up costs.

Whilst the median cost estimate for SEL approaches is very low, the option to purchase additional books, resource and materials, and ongoing training and support means that costs can range from very low to moderate. None of the studies identified in this review examined targeted approaches, but these are known to be more expensive. Intensive approaches that include professional counselling can cost as much as £2800 per child per year.