Cognitive science is the study of how we think, learn, and remember information. In education, it covers concepts like working memory, how knowledge is organised (schema), spaced learning and interleaving, retrieval practice, cognitive load, and using visuals to support learning (dual coding).
This theme is closely aligned with the EEF’s metacognition theme as well as the self-regulationHow children monitor their emotions and thoughts, and adapt their behaviour in different circumstances. and executive functionCognitive skills that enable children to adapt their thinking and actions to achieve a goal. This might be a self-chosen goal (e.g. To build a tower) or set by an adult (e.g. to respond to a question about a story). in the early years theme.
Cognitive science has great potential for improving the learning and attainment of pupils across different phases and subjects, including those from disadvantaged backgrounds.
However, we still need to understand the best ways to apply cognitive science in classrooms.
The evidence base for cognitive science in the classroom mainly comes from a 2021 EEF-commissioned review. The review found that cognitive science principles can improve learning, but there are limitations to the evidence base.
Positive results often come from small or tightly controlled studies, and we don’t yet know how well these approaches work in everyday classroom conditions. This makes understanding how to apply promising findings in real classrooms a key priority.
The EEF continues to focus on learning more about the impact of different cognitive science strategies, how effective they are for different phases and subjects, as well as the implementation challenges and considerations that may limit their effectiveness.
| Evidence Review | A systematic review of cognitive science approaches in the classroom was commissioned and published in 2021. We produced a summary of the evidence and brief explainers to complement this review. |
| EEF Blogs | A series of blogs and resources were published by the EEF’s cognitive science specialist. These include an explanation of key terms related to cognitive science, a guide to implementing cognitive science principles, and a resource on extraneous load and implications for classroom practice. |
| Evidence into Action | Several Evidence into Action partnerships have been delivered, such as the Havering partnership, through which teachers are supported to develop scaffolding as a key adapted approach to improving reading fluency and comprehension. |
The Spring 2022 funding round focused on pilots and trials. The priority areas were:
- Managing cognitive load (e.g. worked examples, scaffolds, collaborative work)
- Working with schemas
- Cognitive theory of multimedia learning
- Approaches related to recall
The Autumn 2022 funding round focused on early-stage development projects, pilots, and trials. It targeted the same priority areas but was limited to cognitive science programmes in maths and literacy from Key Stage 2 to Key Stage 4.
Only a small number of projects were funded, and no full trials were suitable. We commissioned a pilot study and a Teacher Choices trial.
Although a few programmes were directly funded through the Spring and Autumn 2022 funding rounds, several early-stage development projects, pilots, and trials that rely on cognitive science principles have been funded.
Completed trials and pilot studies
| Priority area | Highest-level EEF project | Project | Delivery team | Year groups | Level of intervention | Description | Headline results | Beyond the headline |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cognitive load (scaffolding) | Effectiveness | Improving Working Memory and Arithmetic | University of Oxford | Year 3 | Targeted (Mathematics) | Targeted intervention for pupils with low arithmetic attainment. Teaching assistants work through activities that involve scaffolding of key strategies and a pupil plays web-based games. | 0 months 3 padlocks Efficacy trial: 3 months 4 padlocks | While positive results were recorded in the smaller, first trial, the effectiveness trial in real world conditions using a train the trainer model found no additional impact. |
| Spaced Learning | Efficacy | Smart Spaces | Hallam Teaching School Alliance and Queen’s University Belfast | Year 11 | Whole class (Chemistry) | Six structured revision lessons with spaced learning. Three consecutive days with first three lessons (12 minutes and 10-minute gap) then repeated for last 3 lessons. (A‑B-C x 3 days, D ‑E-F x 3 days.) | 0 months 4 padlocks | The trial looked at impact on GCSE chemistry results and teachers found the programme easy to implement. |
| Schema development | Teacher Choices | A Winning Start | National Foundation for Educational Research | Year 8 | Whole Class (Science) | Use of different lesson starters – retrieval quiz, focused on content from previous lessons and discussions, focused on foregrounding new learning. | No differential impact found, with difficulty in comparison due to teacher-developed tests. | The trial looked at impact on GCSE chemistry results and teachers found the programme easy to implement. |
| Worked examples | Teacher Choices | Using examples to teach grammar to enhance writing in Year 7 | National Foundation for Educational Research | Year 7 | Whole Class (English) | Use of different worked examples to support grammar learning. | No differential impact found between two different worked examples and a non-worked example approach. | This tested the use of worked examples in English, rather than in maths and science where they are usually applied. |
| Schema development | Pilot | Deeper Thinking | Carmel Education Trust | Year 10 – 11 | Whole class (Science) | Metacognitive strategies, concept mapping and revision techniques for GCSE science. | Mixed results and not taken forward to trial. | There was some evidence of positive changes to teaching practice, but some teachers were already using similar techniques. |
| Schema development | Pilot | Science Self-Testing Toolkit | Kingsbridge, Durrington and Huntington Research Schools | Year 10 | Whole class (Science) | Five strategies for schema development: pre/post tests, flashcards, mind-mapping tests, structured note taking, and cumulative quizzing. | Mixed results and not taken forward to trial. | Students responded well to the intervention, but some strategies were perceived as more effective and enjoyable than others. |
| Scaffolding | Pilot | Frames for Learning | Sheffield Hallam University | Year 5 | Whole class | Continuing professional development on the use of scaffolds, which take into account schema development and cognitive load to support learning. | Positive indications but areas of improvement identified. | Teachers and teaching assistants found the programme to be feasible and acceptable. |
Completed early-stage programme development programmes
| Priority area | Highest-level EEF project | Project | Delivery team | Year groups | Level of intervention | Description | Headline results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Schema development | Development | Using Schema Theory to help Practitioners understand the Conceptual Development of Mathematics | Pen Green Centre | Early Years Foundation Stage | Whole class | This programme aims to provide participants with the underpinning knowledge of Schema Theory and how it leads to the conceptual development of mathematics. | Not taken forward to a pilot. |
| Cognitive load | Innovation | Annotation into Argument in Year 9 English | Shotton Hall Research School | Year 9 | Whole class (Writing) | Using approaches to manage cognitive load, scaffold understanding, and develop schemas to support annotation and argument writing. | Not taken forward to a pilot. |
| Worked examples | Innovation | Fractions Foundations | North Yorkshire Coast Research School | Year 7 | Targeted (Mathematics) | Uses worked examples to support learning of fractions, delivered by sixth formers. | Not taken forward to a pilot. |
| Overall, worked examples | Innovation | Training Mathematics Teachers with Cognitive Science Principles for Designing Worked Examples for Mathematics Attainment | Loughborough University | Year 5 | Whole class (Mathematics) | Supporting teachers’ pedagogical knowledge in cognitive science and mathematical skills of children, getting them to design worked examples. | Not taken forward to a pilot. |
| Overall | Innovation | ‘Plan for’ and ‘Plan to’ within the Classroom | Our Lady and Saint Anselm’s RC Primary | Year 4 | Whole class (Writing) | Helping teachers create optimum learning conditions considering working memory, cognitive load. | Not taken forward to a pilot. |
Trials and pilot studies in progress
| Priority area | Highest-level EEF project | Project | Delivery team | Year groups | Level of intervention | Description | Additional notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Schema development | Efficacy | The 5 Rs approach to GCSE Maths resits | Julia Smith and Association of Colleges | 16 – 19 | Whole class | Resit revision programme using 5Rs – recall of knowledge, routine maths practice, revise a key topic, repeat with exam questions, ready for exams. | Not possible to find impact due to COVID-19. Currently undertaking a retrial and the evaluation report will be published in Summer 2026. |
| Schema development | Pilot | Rich Retrieval | Bath Spa University | Year 5 – 6 | Whole class (Science) | Professional development for teachers to introduce “rich” retrieval practices to facilitate schema development in primary science. | The evaluation report will be published in Spring 2028. |
| Worked examples | Pilot | Thinking Mathematically | Blackpool Research School | Year 7 | Whole class (Maths) | Teachers use heuristics, modelling and worked examples to support pupils with problem-solving questions in maths. | The evaluation report will be published in Spring 2026. |